✍️✍️✍️ The Romantic Impulse: Nationalism And Romanticism In American Painting

It started in Edgar allan poe poems the raven and Scotland in the midth century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of coal as the main fuel. The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence — If literature had ceased how maintain friendships have any obvious function — if the writer The Romantic Impulse: Nationalism And Romanticism In American Painting no longer a traditional figure in the pay of the court, the church or an aristocratic patron - then it was possible to turn this fact to literature's advantage. Literary studies The Romantic Impulse: Nationalism And Romanticism In American Painting also moved on from an early and more elitist view of translation. In semi-occupied Italy the State Department and Ambassador James Dunn in particular actively encouraged the non-communists to break with Importance Of Books In Fahrenheit 451 communists and undoubtedly contributed to the latter being thrown out of the government in May

HISTORY OF IDEAS - Romanticism

Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe. Under Uzbeg Khan , Islam became the official religion of the region in the early 14th century. In Russia, the Tatars ruled the various states of the Rus' through vassalage for over years. By the middle of the century, the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the Prussians before conquering and converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades. The Union of Krewo in , bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: conversion to Catholicism and establishment of a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in The Late Middle Ages spanned the 14th and early 15th centuries.

A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of — and the Black Death , killed people in a matter of days, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. Kishlansky reports:. Depopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings including the Jacquerie and the Peasants' Revolt. At the same time, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great Schism.

Collectively these events have been called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of the most important trade routes. The Hanseatic League , an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, Lithuania , and Livonia into trade with other European countries. This fed the growth of powerful states in this part of Europe including Poland-Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy later on.

The conventional end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the fall of the city of Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks in The Turks made the city the capital of their Ottoman Empire , which lasted until and included Egypt , Syria, and most of the Balkans. The Ottoman wars in Europe , also sometimes referred to as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of the continent as a whole. A key 15th-century development was the advent of the movable type of printing press circa in Mainz, [48] building upon the impetus provided by the prior introduction of paper from China via the Arabs in the High Middle Ages. At the local level, levels of violence were extremely high by modern standards in medieval and early modern Europe.

Typically, small groups would battle their neighbors, using the farm tools at hand such as knives, sickles, hammers and axes. Mayhem and death were deliberate. The vast majority of people lived in rural areas. Cities were few, and small in size, but their concentration of population was conducive to violence. Long-term studies of places such as Amsterdam, Stockholm, Venice and Zurich show the same trends as rural areas.

Across Europe, homicide trends not including military actions show a steady long-term decline. From approximately AD through AD, homicide rates from violent local episodes declined by a factor of ten, from approximately 32 deaths per people to 3. In the 20th century the homicide rate fell to 1. Police forces seldom existed outside the cities; prisons only became common after Before then harsh penalties were imposed for homicide severe whipping or execution but they proved ineffective at controlling or reducing the insults to honor that precipitated most of the violence.

The decline does not correlate with economics. Most historians attribute the trend in homicides to a steady increase in self-control of the sort promoted by Protestantism, and necessitated by schools and factories. Historian Manuel Eisner has summarized the patterns from over historical studies. The Early Modern period spans the centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution , roughly from to , or from the discovery of the New World in to the French Revolution in The period is characterised by the rise to importance of science and increasingly rapid technological progress , secularised civic politics and the nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism.

As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism , serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Renaissance , the Protestant Reformation , the disastrous Thirty Years' War , the European colonisation of the Americas and the European witch-hunts. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman led to the Italian Renaissance. The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north, west and middle Europe during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry.

The Italian Petrarch Francesco Petrarca , deemed the first full-blooded Humanist, wrote in the s: "I am alive now, yet I would rather have been born in another time. In the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. Matteo Palmieri wrote in the s: "Now indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god that it has been permitted to him to be born in a new age. The Renaissance was inspired by the growth in the study of Latin and Greek texts and the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age.

This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. The Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance — a rebirth of civilization itself. Important political precedents were also set in this period. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power. In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity and through novel approaches to thought — the immediate past being too "Gothic" in language, thought and sensibility.

Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the Ottoman Empire , culminating in the fall of Constantinople in , cut off trading possibilities with the east. Western Europe was forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus' travel to the Americas in , and Vasco da Gama 's circumnavigation of India and Africa in The numerous wars did not prevent European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century, Portugal led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of Africa in search of a maritime route to India, followed by Spain near the close of the 15th century, dividing their exploration of the world according to the Treaty of Tordesillas in The Yermak 's voyage of led to the annexation of the Tatar Siberian Khanate into Russia, and the Russians would soon after conquer the rest of Siberia , steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries.

Oceanic explorations soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in [59] and New Zealand in With the development of the printing press , new ideas spread throughout Europe and challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. The most common dating of the Reformation begins in , when Luther published The Ninety-Five Theses , and concludes in with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended years of European religious wars.

During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralized and powerful. The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation , which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic dogma.

Two important groups in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the Jesuits , who helped keep Spain, Portugal, Poland, and other European countries within the Catholic fold, and the Oratorians of Saint Philip Neri , who ministered to the faithful in Rome, restoring their confidence in the Church of Jesus Christ that subsisted substantially in the Church of Rome. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the church institutions within their kingdoms.

While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism, they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths, traditions and customs. Another development was the idea of 'European superiority'. The ideal of civilization was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: Discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilized; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as Montaigne that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people.

Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organised. Francis Bacon and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature.

On the other hand, the Parliament in the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were co-operation agreements among territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights. The Iberian states Spain and Portugal were able to dominate colonial activity in the 16th century. The Portuguese forged the first global empire in the 15th and 16th century, whilst during the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the Spanish under the crown of Castile became the most powerful global empire in the world. This dominance was increasingly challenged by British , French , and the short-lived Dutch and Swedish colonial efforts of the 17th and 18th centuries.

New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of government , law and economics necessary. Colonial expansion continued in the following centuries with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the British American colonies and then later Haiti , Mexico , Argentina , Brazil , and others amid European turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars. Spain had control of a large part of North America, all of Central America and a great part of South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines ; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India nearly all of which was lost to Britain in , Indochina , large parts of Africa and the Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the East Indies now Indonesia and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies.

This expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them. Trade flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century, American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget. During the period of French rule, cash crops produced in Saint-Domingue comprised thirty percent of total French trade while its sugar exports represented forty percent of the Atlantic market. The 17th century was an era of crisis. In addition, there were secessions and upheavals in several parts of the Spanish empire, the world's first global empire. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equalled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia.

More wars took place around the world in the midth century than in almost any other period of recorded history. The crises spread far beyond Europe — for example Ming China, the most populous state in the world, collapsed. Across the Northern Hemisphere, the midth century experienced almost unprecedented death rates. Geoffrey Parker, a British historian, suggests that environmental factors may have been in part to blame, especially global cooling.

The "absolute" rule of powerful monarchs such as Louis XIV ruled France — , [72] Peter the Great ruled Russia — , [73] Maria Theresa ruled Habsburg lands — and Frederick the Great ruled Prussia —86 , [74] produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and powerful bureaucracies, all under the control of the king. Throughout the early part of this period, capitalism through mercantilism was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organisation, at least in the western half of Europe.

The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which animated the Industrial Revolution after The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies.

France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion , which ended in the triumph of the Bourbon Dynasty. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth I to a moderate Anglicanism. Much of modern-day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the Holy Roman Empire , which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth is notable in this time for its religious indifference and a general immunity to the horrors of European religious strife. The Thirty Years' War was fought between and , across Germany and neighbouring areas, and involved most of the major European powers except England and Russia.

The major impact of the war, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease, and the breakup of family life, devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries , the Crown of Bohemia and northern parts of Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from disease and starvation, as well as postponed births. After the Peace of Westphalia , which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, absolutism became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the English Civil War and particularly the Glorious Revolution.

European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest, the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the printing press , created new secular forces in thought. In the 16th and 17th centuries Central and Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination of the continent between Sweden , the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth involved in series of wars, like Khmelnytsky uprising , Russo-Polish War , the Deluge , etc.

This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies: Russia, Prussia and Austria the Habsburg Monarchy. By the turn of the 19th century they had become new powers, having divided Poland between themselves, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively as well as pauperisation. The main issue was whether France under King Louis XIV would take control of Spain's very extensive possessions and thereby become by far the dominant power, or be forced to share power with other major nations. After initial allied successes, the long war produced a military stalemate and ended with the Treaty of Utrecht , which was based on a balance of power in Europe.

Historian Russell Weigley argues that the many wars almost never accomplished more than they cost. Trevelyan argues:. Frederick the Great , king of Prussia —86, modernized the Prussian army , introduced new tactical and strategic concepts, fought mostly successful wars Silesian Wars , Seven Years' War and doubled the size of Prussia. Frederick had a rationale based on Enlightenment thought: he fought total wars for limited objectives. The goal was to convince rival kings that it was better to negotiate and make peace than to fight him.

Russia fought numerous wars to achieve rapid expansion toward the east — i. Russia boasted a large and powerful army , a very large and complex internal bureaucracy, and a splendid court that rivaled Paris and London. However the government was living far beyond its means and seized Church lands, leaving organized religion in a weak condition. Throughout the 18th century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country. The Enlightenment was a powerful, widespread cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century Europe emphasizing the power of reason rather than tradition; it was especially favourable to science especially Isaac Newton's physics and hostile to religious orthodoxy especially of the Catholic Church.

It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in light of the evidence. Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers collaborated with Enlightened despots , absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly impose some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the Enlightenment exerted significant influence on the culture, politics, and governments of Europe.

Originating in the 17th century, it was sparked by philosophers Francis Bacon — , Baruch Spinoza — , John Locke — , Pierre Bayle — , Voltaire — , Francis Hutcheson — , David Hume — and physicist Isaac Newton — The Scientific Revolution is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature and man's place within it.

The Enlightenment flourished until about —, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to Romanticism , which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a Counter-Enlightenment began to increase in prominence. The Romantics argued that the Enlightenment was reductionistic insofar as it had largely ignored the forces of imagination, mystery, and sentiment.

Some 25, copies of the 35 volume encyclopedia were sold, half of them outside France. These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as Britain's American colonies. Taking a long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism and Enlightenment ideas in Europe, from about to the 20th century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment , reaching practically every country in Europe. Steven C. Bullock notes that in the late 18th century, English lodges were headed by the Prince of Wales, Prussian lodges by king Frederick the Great , and French lodges by royal princes.

Emperor Napoleon selected as Grand Master of France his own brother. The great enemy of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Austria, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between supporters of the Church versus active Masons. The " long 19th century ", from to saw the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the Industrial Revolution , the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the reorganisation of the political map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in , Europe experienced the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the Russian Empire and the peak of the British Empire, as well as the decline of the Ottoman Empire.

Finally, the rise of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of the First World War in The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th century and early 19th century when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport impacted Britain and subsequently spread to the United States and Western Europe, a process that continues as industrialisation. Technological advancements, most notably the utilization of the steam engine, were major catalysts in the industrialisation process. It started in England and Scotland in the midth century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of coal as the main fuel.

Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals , improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal and powered machinery mainly in textile manufacturing underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous. Historians R. Palmer and Joel Colton argue:. The era of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic wars was a difficult time for monarchs. The American Revolution — was the first successful revolt of a colony against a European power. It proclaimed, in the words of Thomas Jefferson , that "all men are created equal," a position based on the principles of the Enlightenment.

It rejected aristocracy and established a republican form of government under George Washington that attracted worldwide attention. The French Revolution — was a product of the same democratic forces in the Atlantic World and had an even greater impact. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War had nearly bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, King Louis XVI had to convene the Estates-General , a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners.

The third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution and created, in July, the National Constituent Assembly. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the Bastille prison on 14 July At the time the assembly wanted to create a constitutional monarchy , and over the following two years passed various laws including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , the abolition of feudalism , and a fundamental change in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people.

As anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king tried to flee and join France's enemies. He was captured and on 21 January , having been convicted of treason, he was guillotined. On 20 September the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of war , the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety , controlled by Maximilien de Robespierre of the Jacobin Club , to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre, the committee initiated the Reign of Terror , during which up to 40, people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles and those convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal , often on the flimsiest of evidence. Internal tensions at Paris drove the Committee towards increasing assertions of radicalism and increasing suspicions, fueling new terror: A few months into this phase, more and more prominent revolutionaries were being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre and his faction, for example Madame Roland and Georges Danton.

Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the coup of 9 Thermidor 27 July and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies. Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the world's most famous soldiers and statesmen, leading France to great victories over numerous European enemies. Despite modest origins he became Emperor and restructured much of European diplomacy, politics and law, until he was forced to abdicate in His day comeback in failed at the Battle of Waterloo , and he died in exile on a remote island, remembered as a great hero by many Frenchmen and as a great villain by British and other enemies.

Napoleon, despite his youth, was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In on 18 Brumaire 9 November he overthrew the feeble government, replacing it with the Consulate , which he dominated. He gained popularity in France by restoring the Church, keeping taxes low, centralizing power in Paris, and winning glory on the battlefield.

In he crowned himself Emperor. In , Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria Third Coalition , forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time the French fleet was demolished by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar , ending any plan to invade Britain. On 2 December , Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz , forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition see Treaty of Pressburg and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In , a Fourth Coalition was set up. After the measured victories at Smolensk and Borodino Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian army.

He was forced to withdraw. On the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks , and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20, of his men survived the campaign. By the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon. Having been defeated by a seven nation army at the Battle of Leipzig in October , he was forced to abdicate after the Six Days' Campaign and the occupation of Paris. Under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the island of Elba. He returned to France on 1 March see Hundred Days , raised an army, but was finally defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June and exiled to a small British island in the South Atlantic.

Roberts finds that the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, from to , caused 4 million deaths of whom 1 million were civilians ; 1. Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, "meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power.

Furthermore, the French armies in the s and s directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe. They liberalised property laws , ended seigneurial dues , abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised divorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and made Jews equal to everyone else. The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Roman Empire. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and equality under the law was proclaimed for all men. In foreign affairs, the French Army down to was quite successful. Roberts says that Napoleon fought 60 battles, losing only seven.

It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and trapped the French Army in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October , returning to Paris, where he overthrew the government and made himself the ruler. Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in — He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings.

He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months. He later formed the Kingdom of Italy , with his brother as King. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.

Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:. Likewise in Switzerland the long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:. The greatest impact came of course in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government.

Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized — new names were given, "left" and "right" for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution. British historian Max Hastings says there is no question that as a military genius Napoleon ranks with Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in greatness.

However, in the political realm, historians debate whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or, instead, a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler". By the 19th century, governments increasingly took over traditional religious roles, paying much more attention to efficiency and uniformity than to religiosity. Secular bodies took control of education away from the churches, abolished taxes and tithes for the support of established religions, and excluded bishops from the upper houses. Secular laws increasingly regulated marriage and divorce, and maintaining birth and death registers became the duty of local officials.

Although the numerous religious denominations in the United States founded many colleges and universities, that was almost exclusively a state function across Europe. Imperial powers protected Christian missionaries in African and Asian colonies. Likewise briefly in Germany in the s there was a fierce Kulturkampf culture war against Catholics, but the Catholics successfully fought back. The Catholic Church concentrated more power in the papacy and fought against secularism and socialism.

It sponsored devotional reforms that gained wide support among the churchgoers. Historian Kenneth Scott Latourette argues that the outlook for Protestantism at the start of the 19th century was discouraging. It was a regional religion based in northwestern Europe, with an outpost in the sparsely settled United States. It was closely allied with government, as in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Prussia, and especially Great Britain. The alliance came at the expense of independence, as the government made the basic policy decisions, down to such details as the salaries of ministers and location of new churches. The dominant intellectual currents of the Enlightenment promoted rationalism, and most Protestant leaders preached a sort of deism. Intellectually, the new methods of historical and anthropological study undermine automatic acceptance of biblical stories, as did the sciences of geology and biology.

Industrialization was a strongly negative factor, as workers who moved to the city seldom joined churches. The gap between the church and the unchurched grew rapidly, and secular forces, based both in socialism and liberalism undermine the prestige of religion. Despite the negative forces, Protestantism demonstrated a striking vitality by Shrugging off Enlightenment rationalism, Protestants embraced romanticism , with the stress on the personal and the invisible. Entirely fresh ideas as expressed by Friedrich Schleiermacher , Soren Kierkegaard , Albrecht Ritschl and Adolf von Harnack restored the intellectual power of theology. There was more attention to historic creeds such as the Augsburg, the Heidelberg, and the Westminster confessions.

In England, Anglicans emphasize the historically Catholic components of their heritage, as the High Church element reintroduced vestments and incense into their rituals. The stirrings of pietism on the Continent, and evangelicalism in Britain expanded enormously, leading the devout away from an emphasis on formality and ritual and toward an inner sensibility toward personal relationship to Christ. Social activities, in education and in opposition to social vices such as slavery, alcoholism and poverty provided new opportunities for social service. Above all, worldwide missionary activity became a highly prized goal, proving quite successful in close cooperation with European colonialists, particularly during the New Imperialism period.

During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of World War I. Napoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around — played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity. In the German states east of Prussia Napoleon abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the Holy Roman Empire in For example, his organization of the Confederation of the Rhine in promoted a feeling of nationalism.

Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity. The Enlightenment itself merely replaced one socially constructed view of reality with another, mistaking power for knowledge. There is naught but power. Postmodernism continues to have a detrimental influence on social work, questioning the Enlightenment, criticizing established research methods, and challenging scientific authority. The promotion of postmodernism by editors of Social Work and the Journal of Social Work Education has elevated postmodernism, placing it on a par with theoretically guided and empirically based research.

The inclusion of postmodernism in the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Council on Social Work Education and its sequel further erode the knowledge-building capacity of social work educators. In relation to other disciplines that have exploited empirical methods, social work's stature will continue to ebb until postmodernism is rejected in favor of scientific methods for generating knowledge. Sidky pointed out what he sees as several "inherent flaws" of a postmodern antiscience perspective, including the confusion of the authority of science evidence with the scientist conveying the knowledge; its self-contradictory claim that all truths are relative; and its strategic ambiguity.

He sees 21st-century anti-scientific and pseudo-scientific approaches to knowledge, particularly in the United States, as rooted in a postmodernist "decades-long academic assault on science:". Sadly, they forgot the lofty ideals of their teachers, except that science is bogus. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Redirected from Postmodern. Philosophical and artistic movement. This article is about the movement. For the architectural style, see Postmodern architecture. For the condition or state of being, see Postmodernity. For other uses, see Postmodernism disambiguation.

Sign relation relational complex. Code Confabulation. Lexical Modality Representation. Salience Semiosis Semiosphere. Umwelt Value. Biosemiotics Cognitive semiotics. Morris Charles S. Structuralism Post-structuralism. Deconstruction Postmodernism. Main article: Deconstruction. Main article: Postmodern philosophy. Main article: Jacques Derrida. Main article: Michel Foucault. Main article: Richard Rorty. Main article: Jean Baudrillard. Main article: Fredric Jameson.

Main article: Douglas Kellner. Main article: Postmodern architecture. Main article: Postmodern art. Main article: Postmodern literature. Main articles: Postmodern music , Postmodern classical music , and Art pop. Main article: Criticism of postmodernism. Theory Integral theory — Framework for integrating diverse theories Transmodernism — Philosophical and cultural movement Anti-foundationalism — Term applied to any philosophy which rejects a foundationalist approach Culture and politics Defamiliarization — Artistic technique of presenting common things in an unfamiliar or strange way Disenchantment — Cultural rationalization and devaluation of religion apparent in modern society Syncretism — Assimilation of two or more originally discrete religious traditions Politics Post-realism Philosophy Epistemological nihilism Idealism — Philosophical view Religion Postmodern religion — Religion influenced by postmodernism History Post-histoire Second modernity Opposed by Altermodern Remodernism Remodernist film Stuckism — International art movement.

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Anselm Ballot Or The Bullet Analysis Canterbury and St. In the Balkansthe Ottoman Compare And Contrast Characters In Fahrenheit 451 overran Byzantine lands, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople inwhich historians mark as the end of the Middle Ages. However, this lasted Aztec Empire Turning Points a very short time: when fascist Italy entered World War II inall the transmission were interrupted, and were resumed in earnest only The Apache Girl Analysis years after the end of the conflict, in Latinor The Romantic Impulse: Nationalism And Romanticism In American Painting horizontal, where both SL and TL have a similar value e.