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The western leeward side has a much drier climate. At higher elevations, the amount of precipitation decreases, and skies are very often clear. Very low temperatures mean that precipitation often occurs in the form of snow, and the summit of Mauna Loa is described as a periglacial region, where freezing and thawing play a significant role in shaping the landscape. Mauna Loa has a tropical climate with warm temperatures at lower elevations and cool to cold temperatures higher up year-round.

Below is the table for the slope observatory, which is at 11, feet 3, m in the alpine zone. The location of Mauna Loa has made it an important location for atmospheric monitoring by the Global Atmosphere Watch and other scientific observations. From its location well above local human-generated influences, the MLO monitors the global atmosphere, including the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Measurements are adjusted to account for local outgassing of CO 2 from the volcano. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Volcano on the island of Hawaii in Hawaii, United States.

For other uses, see Mauna Loa disambiguation. Mauna Loa as seen from the air. US highest major peaks 66th US most prominent peaks 38th Hawaii highest major peaks 2nd. Landsat mosaic; recent lava flows appear in black. Mauna Loa's summit, overlaid with m ft contour lines ; its rift zones are visible from the air. See also: List of Mauna Loa eruptions. Mauna Loa. GPS stations, tiltmeters , and strainmeters on Mauna Loa's summit. Not shown: a webcam and a gas detector positioned on the caldera rim. Summit inflation as measured via GPS between June and April ; arrows denote between 1 and 10 cm 0. United States historic place. Wilkes Campsite. National Register of Historic Places. Sketch by ship's artist Alfred Thomas Agate. Retrieved 12 December Retrieved 9 December Retrieved 21 October National Geographic.

Geological Society of America. Archived from the original on Retrieved NGS Station Datasheet. United States National Geodetic Survey. Retrieved February 15, United States Geological Survey. February 2, Sherrod; John M. Sinton; Sarah E. Brunt Open-File Report — Retrieved August 26, R; Anderson, Don L. March 11, Retrieved April 1, Brent Volcanism in Hawaii: papers to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the founding of the Hawaii Volcano Observatory.

Professional Paper Archived from the original PDF on Retrieved 27 January Retrieved 29 January Retrieved 30 January Tilling ISBN Nature Geoscience. Bibcode : NatGe Hubbard 24 March [, 7th ed. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 20 October BBC News. Retrieved 10 December Moore Retrieved 5 February Nature Publishing Group.

Bibcode : Natur. PMID S2CID Retrieved 11 December Ulukau — Hawaiian Electronic Library. Archived from the original on 28 December Lipman American Journal of Science. Amelung, S. Yun, T. Walter, P. Segall, S. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Bibcode : Sci Retrieved 16 December Wolfe; W. Wise; G. Dalrymple The geology and petrology of Mauna Kea volcano, Hawaii : a study of postshield volcanism. Archived from the original on 16 February Oregon State University. Retrieved 13 December Volcano Watch.

University of Hawaii at Hilo. You crazy? In the middle of the Pacific? Hawaii Center for Volcanology. Retrieved 25 December March 16, Retrieved 28 July Retrieved 24 January Global Volcanism Program. This was soon challenged in by American palaeontologist Stephen Jay Gould and English palaeoanthropologist David Pilbeam , who guessed from the available skeletal elements a much lighter weight of about McHenry plotted body size vs.

Based on the average of these two regressions, he reported an average weight of At Member 3, all individuals were consistent with a 45 kg 99 lb human. Based on just these three, he reported an average height of cm 4 ft 4 in for P. In , palaeoanthropologist Randall L. Susman and colleagues, using two recently discovered proximal femoral fragments from Swartkrans, estimated an average of 42 kg 93 lb for males and 30 kg 66 lb for females. If these four proximal femur specimens—SK 82, SK 97, SKW 19, and SK —are representative of the entire species, they said that this degree of sexual dimorphism is greater than what is exhibited in humans and chimpanzees , but less than orangutans and gorillas.

Female P. In , Robinson suggested that the heavily built skull of P. Because of this, the predominant model of Paranthropus extinction for the latter half of the 20th century was that they were unable to adapt to the volatile climate of the Pleistocene, unlike the much more adaptable Homo. Subsequent researchers reinforced this model studying the musculature of the face, dental wearing patterns, and primate ecology. Because the chewing muscles are arranged the same way, Walker postulated that the heavy build was instead an adaptation to chew a large quantity of food at the same time.

He also found that microwearing on 20 P. In , in their review of Paranthropus dietary literature, anthropologists Bernard Wood and David Strait concluded that Paranthropus were most definitely generalist feeders, and that P. They found that the microwear patterns in P. In , biological anthropologists Greg Laden and Richard Wrangham proposed that Paranthropus relied on USOs as a fallback or possibly primary food source, and noted that there may be a correlation between high USO abundance and hominin occupation. A carbon isotope analysis suggested that P. Dentin exposure on juvenile teeth could indicate early weaning, or a more abrasive diet than adults which wore away the cementum and enamel coatings, or both.

It is also possible juveniles were instead less capable of removing grit from dug-up food rather than purposefully seeking out more abrasive foods. Given the marked anatomical and physical differences with modern great apes, there may be no modern analogue for australopithecine societies, so comparisons drawn with modern primates are highly speculative. In , anthropologist Charles Lockwood and colleagues pointed out that P.

This is commonly correlated with a male-dominated polygamous society, such as the harem society of modern forest-dwelling silverback gorillas where one male has exclusive breeding rights to a group of females. Estimated male-female size disparity in P. Because the majority of sexed P. In a harem society, males are more likely to be evicted from the group given higher male—male competition over females, and lone males may have been put at a higher risk of predation. By this hypothesis, a female moving out of her birth group may have spent little time alone and transferred immediately to another established group.

However, in , palaeoanthropologist Sandi Copeland and colleagues studied the strontium isotope ratio of P. This discounts the plausibility of a harem society, which would have resulted in a matrilocal society due to heightened male—male competition. Males did not seem to have ventured very far from the valley, which could either indicate small home ranges, or that they preferred dolomitic landscapes due to perhaps cave abundance or factors related to vegetation growth. Even in a multi-male society, it is still possible that males were more likely to be evicted, explaining male-skewed mortality with the same mechanism. In , anthropologist Katharine Balolia and colleagues postulated that, because male non-human great apes have a larger sagittal crest than females particularly gorillas and orangutans , the crest may be influenced by sexual selection in addition to supporting chewing muscles.

Further, the size of the sagittal crest and the gluteus muscles in male western lowland gorillas has been correlated with reproductive success. Balolia et al. This contrasts with other primates which flash the typically enlarged canines in agonistic display Paranthropus likely did not do this as the canines are comparatively small , though it is also possible that the crest is only so prominent in male gorillas and orangutans because they require larger temporalis muscles to achieve a wider gape to better display the canines. Cave sites in the Cradle of Humankind often have stone and bone tools, with the former attributed to early Homo and the latter generally to P.

Australopithecine bone technology was first proposed by Dart in the s with what he termed the " osteodontokeratic culture ", which he attributed to A. These bones are no longer considered to have been tools, and the existence of this culture is not supported. The first probable bone tool was reported by Robinson in at Sterkfontein Member 5. Excavations led by South African palaeontologist Charles Kimberlin Brain at Swartkrans in the late s and early s recovered 84 similar bone tools, and excavations led by Keyser at Drimolen recovered These tools were all found alongside Acheulean stone tools , except for those from Swartkrans Member 1 which bore Oldowan stone tools. Thus, there are bone tool specimens from the region in total, and possibly an additional two from Kromdraai B.

Bone tools may have been used to cut or process vegetation, [72] process fruits namely marula fruit , strip tree bark, [73] or dig up tubers or termites. They were not manufactured or purposefully shaped for a task, but since they display no weathering, and there is a preference displayed for certain bones, raw materials were likely specifically hand picked. This contrasts with East African bone tools which appear to have been modified and directly cut into specific shapes before using.

In , Brain and South African archaeologist A. Sillent analysed the 59, bone fragments from Swartkrans Member 3, and found that had been burnt, mainly belonging to medium-sized antelope, but also zebra, warthog, baboon, and P. They were found across the entire depth of Member 3, so fire was a regular event throughout its deposition. They concluded that these bones were, "the earliest direct evidence of fire use in the fossil record," and compared the temperatures with those achieved by experimental campfires burning white stinkwood which commonly grows near the cave.

Though some bones had cut marks consistent with butchery, they said it was also possible hominins were making fire to scare away predators or for warmth instead of cooking. Because both P. Australopithecines are generally considered to have had a faster, apelike growth rate than modern humans largely due to dental development trends. Broadly speaking, the emergence of the first permanent molar in early hominins has been variously estimated anywhere from 2. The 1st permanent molar of SK 63, which may have died at 3. In modern apes including humans , dental development trajectory is strongly correlated with life history and overall growth rate, but it is possible that early hominins simply had a faster dental trajectory but a slower life history due to environmental factors, such as early weaning age as is exemplified in modern indriid lemurs.

While growing, the front part of the jaw in P. For comparison, chimp jaws are generally depository reflecting prognathism, and modern humans resorptive reflecting a flat face. In Paranthropus , this may have functioned to thicken the palate. Unlike other apes and gracile australopithecines, but like humans, the premaxillary suture between the premaxilla and the maxilla on the palate formed early in development. At early stages, the P. By the time the first permanent molar erupts, the body of the mandible and the front jaw broadened, and the ramus of the mandible elongated, diverging from the modern human trajectory.

Because the ramus was so tall, it is suggested that P. Growth was most marked between the eruptions of the first and second permanent molars, most notably in terms of the distance from the back of the mouth to the front of the mouth, probably to make room for the massive postcanine teeth. Like humans, jaw robustness decreased with age, though it decreased slower in P. In contrast, the presence of perikymata on the incisors and canines growth lines which typically are worn away after eruption could indicate these teeth had a reduced growth rate. In contrast, those of other hominins reach 5—6 mm 0. SK 62's growth trajectory is more similar to that of gorillas, whose roots typically measure 7 mm 0.

Females may have reached skeletal maturity by the time the third molar erupted, but males appear to have continued growing after reaching dental maturity, during which time they become markedly more robust than females sexual bimaturism. Similarly, male gorillas complete dental development about the same time as females, but continue growing for up to 5 or 6 years; and male mandrills complete dental development before females, but continue growing for several years more. In , American anthropologist Alan Mann, using dental maturity, stratified P. He also reported an average of Using these, he argued these hominins had a humanlike prolonged childhood.

McKinley agreed with Mann that P. McKinley also speculated that sexual maturity was reached at approximately 11 years because it is about halfway between the averages for chimps 9 years and humans Based on this, he concluded babies were birthed at intervals of 3 to 4 years using a statistical test to maximise the number of children born. In , after estimating a foetal size of 1,—1, g 2. In , British biologists Paul H. Harvey and Tim Clutton-Brock came up with equations relating body size to life history events for primates, which McHenry applied to australopithecines in For P. These roughly aligned with other australopithecines and chimps.

However, for chimps, he got strongly inaccurate results when compared to actual data for newborn brain size, weaning age, and birth interval, and for humans all metrics except birth interval. Based on a sample of teeth, P. This is similar to what was found for A. The condition of these holes covering the entire tooth is consistent with the modern human ailment amelogenesis imperfecta. Since circular holes in enamel coverage are uniform in size, only present on the molar teeth , and have the same severity across individuals, the PEH may have been a genetic condition. It is possible that the coding region concerned with thickening enamel also increased the risk of developing PEH. As many as four P. This is odd as P. PEH may have also increased susceptibility to cavities.

In order for cavity-creating bacteria to reach this area, the individual would have also presented either alveolar resportion , which is commonly associated with gum disease ; or super-eruption of the tooth which occurs when it becomes worn down and has to erupt a bit more in order to maintain a proper bite, exposing the root in the process. The latter is most likely, and the exposed root seems to have caused hypercementosis to anchor the tooth in place. The cavity seems to have been healing, possibly due to a change in diet or mouth microbiome , or the loss of the adjacent molar. In a sample of 15 P. In contrast, in a sample of 10 A. Measuring the distance between the alveolar bone and the cementoenamel junction , P. If the former is correct, then the difference may be due to different dietary habits, chewing strategies, more pathogenic mouth microflora in P.

While removing the matrix encapsulating TM , Schepers noted a large rock, which would have weighed 75 g 2. He considered this evidence that another individual had killed TM by launching the rock as a projectile in either defense or attack, but the most parsimonious explanation is that the rock was deposited during the fossilisation process after TM had died. In , science writer Robert Ardrey noted two small holes about 2.

The Pleistocene Cradle of Humankind was mainly dominated by the springbok Antidorcas recki , but other antelope, giraffes , and elephants were also seemingly abundant megafauna. The carnivore assemblage comprises the sabertoothed cats Dinofelis spp. Overall, the animal assemblage of the region broadly indicates a mixed, open-to-closed landscape featuring perhaps montane grasslands and shrublands.

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